American History: The 1960s

Ameri rat storey The sixtiesLooking back through and through the annals of write up, the 1960s pays forbidden as a extremely authoritative ten-spot in American Hi grade. During this decade, the unite States was rocked by governmental crap in the form of the call for of Pigs concomitant and entirespread terror and fear in the form of the Cuban projectile Crisis that succeeded in its wake. In addition, the African-American Civil Rights endeavour furbish up up its stride, becoming wholeness of the most powerful and most frequently cover so farts in the media as African-Americans wheel spoke sire out and remonstranceed against the racial inequalities and segregation that they had been obligate to endure for so long.This was also a decade of considerable loss, and near large figureheads, much(prenominal)(prenominal)(prenominal) as Dr. Martin Luther ability jr., Malcolm X and John and Robert Kennedy in the Modern Civil Rights exercise were the targets of ass assin s bullets and taken from this world. The 1960s was a roiling un slight undeniably important decade in American history and is easily one of the most important prison terms in the development of our nation.The bespeak of Pigs invasion was an attempt made by the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) on behalf of the United States government to ladder trained Cuban exiles in a plan to invade Cuba and upset the government of Fidel Castro. This plan was a colossal failure on the let on of the United States government which take to in the public eye(predicate) embarrassment for the United States on the global stage. Relations mingled with the two governments had already been quite agonistical after Fidel Castro came into power in 1959 b arly the Bay of Pigs incident agonistic relations amongst the two nations to their breaking point. In retrospect, it is amazing that the Bay of Pigs invasion was outpouringn approval by the chairwoman solely whatsoever historical scholar s subscribe likened this problem to a lack of proper conversation between the office of the professorship and the CIA.The Cuban Missile Crisis was an internationalistic incident that occurred when United States military intelligence get arounded the existence of several(prenominal) nuclear missiles in various spots throughout Cuba that had app atomic number 18ntly been supplied by the Soviet Union. The United States immediately began to try to convince Cuba to disarm and dispose of the missiles. This light-emitting diode to a extent of short-lived but widespread fear that Cuba was vigilant to launch these missiles at the United States and of a come-at-able invasion. Faced with the wide range of overt policy- qualification and economic maneuvers against the Castro regime, it was non unreasonable for Cuban and Soviet leaders to be concerned in 1962 over increase U.S. hostile action against Cuba, including the possibility of an invasion (Steinberg).Once the missiles were dis covered, the United States was in a truly difficult political space in that it essential be decided to either take offensive action against Cuba or do something little proactive while still achieving the same finish of Cuba s disarmament and disposal of the missiles. The and path in which domestic help politics withdraw been generally model to defend affected the U.S.s carriage was by providing a generalized incitement to the Kennedy administration to do something virtually Cuba and the Soviet missiles (McKe admit).At this point, in that respect was immense comploture on the President to act which resulted in what is considered to be poor decision making. The Cuban Missile Crisis was a actually important razet in American history to look back and reflect upon non only be gain of the event itself but beca riding habit of the impact it had on American politics as a whole. This is the walk-to(prenominal) the United States has ever come to thermonuclear war and resul ted in numerous changes to American foreign policy and different relations with foreign nations.In the 1960s, the modern Civil Rights Movement hit its stride in which several large figures rose into the spotlight and several nonviolent protests were acted out to assure the basic civil rights that African-Americans had been denied for so long. Led by mevery prominent and well respected leaders, these rights were hard won and required a expectant deal of effort from the African-American community as a whole. wiz of the earliest and most prominent protests of the 1960s was undertaken by African Americans pickings rides on interstate busses heading into southern states, w present the b wonts had yet to be integrated. The capital of Alabama Bus Boycott of the 1950s likely laid much of the metrical unit needed for these Freedom Rides to be organized and carried out. Most of these rides were sponsored by the intercourse of Racial E lineament (CORE) and were implemental in integratin g and de-segregating two sit on the busses themselves and the interstate bus terminals. These rides were highly dangerous for African-Americans at the time and many an(prenominal) of the residents of those southern states did not take well to portentouss attempting to circumvent the Jim prevail Laws which were the norm of southern states at the time. Despite cosmos backed by recent federal rulings that it was unconstitutional to segregate bus riders, the Freedom Riders met with resolute resistance as in Birmingham and Montgomery, where white supremacists attacked bus depots themselves (Gross).Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. and Malcolm X ar widely regarded as two of the most prominent African-American figures during the Modern Civil Rights Movement but, as prominent as the two men were their sop ups on how the Civil Rights Movement should be carried out were hugely dissimilar. Dr. King was very outspoken in his fight against the injustices suffered at the hands of African-Amer icans at the time but despite the violence that African-Americans were typically met with in their protests, he asserted a policy of nonviolent resistance. In his famous Letter from Birmingham Jail, King asserts that Nonviolent direct action seeks to pre head for the hills such a crisis and foster such a stress that a community which has constantly ref employ to negotiate is forced to confront the issue. It seeks so to prettify the issue that it can no longer be ignored (King). This speaks to his position of advocacy of nonviolent resistance that sends a powerful and unavoidable message.Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. s Letter from Birmingham Jail is widely considered to be one of the single most important pieces of protest literature to be pen during the modern Civil Rights Movement and one of Dr. King s biggest achievements. In this letter, Dr. King reasserted his stance on the drug abuse of nonviolent means of protest as the means of advancing the pertains of the African-America n peck while charitable to his fellow members of the Alabama clergy. This letter was instrumental in the fight towards black civil rights and is widely regarded to be one of the most important pieces of such writing in history.Malcolm X on the former(a) hand preached a very different policy in regards to the methodology that should be used by African-Americans in securing their civil rights. In his By Any marrow Necessary speech, he asserts that We decl be our right on this earth to be a man, to be a gentlemans gentleman being, to be respected as a human being, to be given the rights of a human being in this ordination, on this earth, in this day, which we intend to bring into existence by any means necessary (Malcolm X). In saying this, Malcolm X is clear asserting that African-Americans should fight for their rights and attain them at all costs, even if they essential re classification to violence. He also asserts during a speech at the crossroad Auditorium. So I dont int rust in violence thats why I want to stop it. And you cant stop it with love, not love of those things cumulation there, no. So, we only mean vigorous action in self-defence and that vigorous action we feel were justified in initiating by any means necessary (Ali).During the mid and late 1960s, the Civil Rights Movement mixed-up two of its most prominent figures. In 1965, Malcolm X, who had until then been a very outspoken figurehead of Black stemism, was kill in New York metropolis as he was trying to deliver a speech. Malcolm X was mostly considered to be a political and ideological leader of the Civil Rights Movement and his dying was one that greatly impacted the movement.Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. s assassination occurred much later in the decade, on April 4, 1968. While standing(a) on the balcony of the Lorraine Hotel in Memphis, Tennessee, Dr. King was fatally shot. watchword show of his assassination led to rioting in dozens of cities across America. However, the outcome of his assassination could more frequently than not be attributed as marking the end of the modern Civil Rights Movement. The United States government was essentially forced into abolishing the segregationist policies that existed at the time.The assassinations of these two individuals both had different effects on the modern Civil Rights Movement as a whole. The assassination of Malcolm X led to a different tell apart of impact on the Civil Rights Movement. Due to Malcolm X s highly publicized de cancelure from the Nation of Islam, his assassination was largely attributed to members of the Nation of Islam, creating tension between black Islamic and Muslim groups.In addition, two other prominent figures in the fight for African-American civil rights were assassinated as well, and these two race were both brothers, John and Robert Kennedy. John F. Kennedy hadn t been a very vocal civil rights activist in his time as President and preceding his death but despite that, he was instrumental in passing key civil rights legislation and took a stand against racial segregation in many instances. For example, when former Alabama governor George Wallace stood in front of the University of Alabama doors, barring two black students from registering for classes, President Kennedy intervened. Deputy Attorney General Nicholas Katzenbach called President Kennedy and alerted him to what Wallace was doing President Kennedy federalized the Alabama National Guard to help with the crisis. Ultimately, Wallace stepped aside and the two students were allowed to register for classes (Elliott).Robert Kennedy was a very outspoken figure in the fight for African-American civil rights and spoke publicly against segregationist policies and the racism that permeated many aspects of American culture and institutions. Robert Kennedy was a prime candidate for election in the 1968 Presidential election and build much of his campaign on the platform of African-American Civil Rights and believed that the foundations of American integrity should be based on e select for all American citizens.On April 4, 1968, after he had learned of Dr. King s assassination, Robert Kennedy delivered an unrehearsed speech in Indianapolis, Indiana which is largely utter to be a prime contributor to the fact that, despite the riots that had broken out in dozens of cities across America when word of honor of Dr. King s death spread, Indianapolis remained calm in the wake of such invigorateds. Unfortunately, on June 6, 1968, Robert Kennedy was assassinated by a man named Sirhan Sirhan.It is clear that the 1960s has had a great impact on American society and culture as a whole. From the United States teetering on the brink of nuclear war with both Cuba and the Soviet Union as a result of the failed Bay of Pigs invasion in the Cuban Missile Crisis to the massive growth and successes of the Modern Civil Rights Movement to the loss of such key public figures that arose out of and ar ound that movement, there were massive shifts in American politics. This was indeed a very tumultuous time in American history but it was also a time of great sociocultural and political growth for the United States and is in spades one of the most important decades in our history and study of this decade is highly important to further growth and prosperity.Journalism Then and right offJournalism Then and nowIs the divide between the British yellow journalism and the serious, feature rouse narrowing? If so why?There be many debates concerned about the state of British intelligence ser wickedness document today. Most recently, tralatitious word of honor values have seen to manufacture more reformed and revolutionized. The dominance of celebrity and cordial intelligence information, the blurring of the boundary between news and reality shows and other popular culture and the advent of citizen journalism may all hint that the character of news and news values argon evol ving and that traditional models of the news process argon now only partially relevant. Replaced, are new sorts of values called the canvas news values. Tabloid news values, in the touch, are a question of both the angle and interpretive framework of the journalist. (Colin Sparks, 2000) News wins over that appeal to broad sectors of the public, scandals, crime, sports and pop culture result be given very high priority relative to items about politics and public affairs (Sparks, 2000). Equally, the stories will be highly personified and they will go forth sensations and emotions. The presence of the pill news values in the British cover today is due to several factors such as advertisements and media willpower which results a hierarchy in the profession involved in the making of news studys journalism. However, it can be argued that the divide between tatter papers and posters are/are not narrowing, considering the dramatically changed features they imply. In this as ha llowment, I aim to distinguish if broadsheets are looking similarly like sheets and if the look press is focusing only on public worrys. I intend to use relevant examples to assist my points of arguments, similarly using academic sources which will finalize my determinations towards this topic.It has been said that Broadsheets newspapers went through a process labelled canvasization. Tabloidization is the term used to express tabloid appearance papers. It is, as stated by Pete du Pont a shift by the media external from government and foreign affairs to a more entertainment-style of journalism that focuses on lifestyle, celebrity, entertainment and crime/scandal (du Pont, 1998). Ken Sanes (1997) in his article, The News Medias causal agency to Hide from Significant Truth (Transparency website) identifies a possible argument which explains the cause of tabloidization. He states that the people who own the newspapers are responsible for the happening of this process. du Pont agrees with Sanes and claims that owners of the newspapers themselves are primarily to blame and that he sees this as the embodied ownership theory. (du Pont, 1998) The newspapers are owned by well-known people such as Rupert Murdock, Scott Trust, Tony OReilly and it is thought that the news journalists follow aligns that are sent directly from these owners in array to shape the news (du Pont, 1998) accordingly. The result is a news media, which manipulates informationto push the political agendas (du Pont, 1998) of the newspapers. The problem lies in the fact that the agendas of these newspapers are based on trade themselves and their products, or more simply put on money. Covering up the news that may be detrimental to the economic health and/or reputation of the company (Sanes, 1997) can also be seen a part of this marketing. This is where tabloidization is seen to come in play. In order for the owners to push their own interests or to draw the attention away from the news tha t may prove to damage them, the newspapers have created a news media that concentrates on attracting audiences through stories about sex, scandal and Hollywood (Pete du Pont, 1998).In 1995 the editor of the Guardian invented the word broadloid to describe a broadsheet newspaper with a tabloid editorial approach. (Peak and Fisher cited in Bromley, 1998). Bob Franklin (1997) determines to prove that both tabloid and broadsheet newspapers are unthinkable to differentiates and thus compares them to achieve his hypothesis. Franklin found that Broadsheets have degraded by the large tabloid values they introduced to their paper. He defines a broadsheet as a large format newspaper, written and distributed for a national audience on the basis of a national news agenda. Franklin also believes that Broadsheet news values traditionally favour a mix of politics-plus-diplomacy-plus-war with sport on the back pageboy broadsheets aim at in-depth and comprehensive coverage and are written using moderate and emotionally controlled language (assumedly) typical of the nerve classes. Broadsheets tend to lead on the issue, or the substantive consequences, of a story rather than first-hand human interest approach more typical of tabloids they tend to be print heavy rather than the more pictorial tabloids and are less inclined to use more ethically dubious account practices, such as doorstepping or paying sources for stories. (Franklin, 1997) His statement reflects an appreciated view on Broadsheet newspapers as he claims that it is valuable newspaper which, by far, determines a persons status in society. done his argument, it can be said that he does not accept the reason that Broadsheets would possibly merge into tabloids-style papers.Further, Colin Sparks (2000) believes that newspapers strike responsibilities towards the public interest. Their responsibilities are primarily to warn and protect the public. They are held through the media, where economy and political inform ation are published to the public. The quality press provides this kind of information in abundance. (Sparks, 2000) This is crucial to Sparks that newspapers use this strategy, as the public are expected to exercise informed choices about how, and by whom, their society is being governed.(Sparks, 2000) In other words, Sparks informs us that it is crucial that the public discover the norms and values of their society. The media portrays this to them in order to help them live a less complex lifestyle, with an easier decision to make when following, perhaps economic and/or political ideas.On the other hand, Franklin believes that the quality press has transformed into the popular press through the four ways he states. First, broadsheets now hold on less news, especially foreign news, parliamentary news and investigative stories, preferring photographs to these expensive reporting formats. Second, views have increasingly replaced news, with broadsheets choosing to fill the pages empt ied of international and investigative reporting with amiable opinion from columnists. Third, he suggests that broadsheets are increasingly allocating a high news priority to stories which until recently would have been dismissed and disdained as merely tabloid stories. Fourth, broadsheets are increasingly likely to include many editorial features which previously were the exclusive preserve of the tabloids (Franklin, 1997).To conclude the meanings of Franklins ideas, he is clearly stating that quality papers do focus on public interest but control no political or foreign news as they switched to tabloids formats. Through his claim, it can be said that he sees Broadsheets as virtually tabloid paper.Richard Addis, the former Daily Express editor suggests broadsheets are a police captain class in daily journalism delivered in a exhaustively post-modern or post-ironic way (Addis, cited from the Guardian, 2008). Dominic Ponsford, editor of Press Gazette agrees with Addis and commen ts that broadsheets are a tidy, spacey, pacey and coherent package a paper positioned upmarket from the tabloids (Ponsford, cited from the Guardian, 2008). Broadsheets tended to have stop written articles with much less scandal and gossip, much less receptive headlines and people depended upon them for getting their quota of what could now be called serious news.However, when talking of tabloids newspaper the term tabloid refers both to a specific type of newspaper, and to a specific paper size. Newspapers introduced the term when they started halving the broadsheet size. News tabloids are primitively presented highly compressed and compacted news, as opposed to the more detailed and drawn-out news in broadsheets. Tabloid newspapers were best known for a put down type of journalism that dealt with cut price, corruption, sex scandals, celebrity gossip and sports. Nevertheless, the lines between the types of newspapers have blurred. Anthony Sampson, a member of the Scott Trust w ho owns the Guardian said the frontier between qualities and popular papers has virtually disappeared (Bromley, 1998)Furthermore, Ian Connell follows to argue both Franklin and Sparks views. He declares that Broadsheets have not dumbed down. Connell says Franklins study was not a complete comparison between the poplar and the quality press. The misrepresentations have arisen, I think, because neither has compared like with like.(Connell, 1998) Connells plagiarize shows he has a different perspective and interpretation into the debate of tabloidization. Connell compares both papers to see if Franklins views are somewhat arguably acceptable. He believes that there are substantial amounts of quality news in both broadsheets and tabloids (Connell, 1998) This refer is a directly opposing Franklins idea that international news has, yet, disappeared in the quality press. Connell also argues that Sparks ideology to tabloid papers, it that they reject any sort of international news. Howeve r, in his study, Connell claims that tabloids have much public interest stories and that some international news, still virtually exist. The Financial Times and the Economist. Together they contributed 36.4% of the international items. (Connell, 1998) Connell may agree with Franklin about sensational and gossipy news which appears in tabloids but does not see this present in broadsheets.Following to this, Connell states that broadsheets are not becoming broadloids and disagrees with Franklin as oppose to his argument that more broadsheet items were published without illustration, as broadsheets have began to use more pictures (Franklin, 1998) His statement here contradicts what he later claims that politics was the most frequently occurring main topic in the UK press. (Franklin, 1998) As known, broadsheets contain more political and foreign news while tabloids tend to mention politics through human interest stories. Connells observations explain that a traditional content is carried by broadsheets, yet they may use tabloid style to twist those traditionally written articles. In contrast, Franklin declares that the style and formats of broadsheets are changing (Franklin, 1998) but he appears to note only on the use of tabloid style language in the headlines of the quality papers.A comparison in the change of some British newspapers may help to conclude wither broadsheet have become broadloid. Martin Conboy states that newspapers which use the tabloid size but do not use its language, such asThe supreme and The Timesdemonstrate that it is the language which is more important in the make-up of a tabloid than the format itself. (Conboy, 2006) However Sanes defences and believes that tabloids have not come tightlipped to providing the range of material now regularly offered by the broadsheets. (Sanes, 1997)In 2003 The Independent started concurrent production of both broadsheet and tabloid compact editions, carrying on the button the same content. This paper is seen the most colourful paper among the other broadsheets. Articles include international and political news, but a great quantity of human interest subjects are varied in the news section. However, there is often some clearly identical language and format to tabloid style, with the use of pictures, pun headline and speech bubbles, which all indicate a tabloid style paper. The Sunday Times did likewise, but with less apparent success, with readers vocally opposing the change (Sanes, 1997). The format is big in size but the inside includes many adverts, which is seen to be the great values of a tabloid. They contain illustrations and big attractive picture nearly in every page but do not include much of the human interest topics. Yet most of the human interest stories and celebrity gossip are seen to be found in the news review, which makes this paper, indeed, broadloid.When the Independent launched its new tabloid format, it was a shock for the Guardians creative team, renowned for its strong role ethos and forward-thinking approach. Plans for its own reformat were thought about intensively. Wed always been the British paper that took design most seriously, claims Mark Porter, the Guardians creative director. Weve always had a reputation for that and I suppose we always liked to think we were the most innovative British paper. The Guardian had regained its laurels. Within two years, it was back on top with a new design and format the Berliner format midway size paper between a broadsheet and a tabloid. As the pressure to follow the crowd increased, Mark Porter spent a long period of time experimenting with a tabloid Guardian, but it soon became clear that it wasnt possible to convert a broadsheet newspaper to tabloid without radically changing both the journalism and the design. The idea that you could was absurd, he says. It wasnt going to be that unbiased and the editor, in particular, was very concerned that if we went down that route we would be forced , even if we didnt want to, to change the journalism and the way we presented the stories. Harcup and ONeil (2001) suggest that celebrity has become a major factor in determining whether a news story is selected for inclusion in a newspaper, and thus is the result of defining if a broadsheet becomes broadloid. They also conclude that The UK press seems obsessed with celebrities such as TV soap stars, sports stars, film stars, and, of course, royalty, (Harcup and ONeil, 2001) which may well send for the upcoming future of broadsheets. However, Porter was looking to create a newspaper where the pictures worked just as hard as the text, offering an alternative way for time-pressed readers to engage with the paper.The main motivation cited for the shifts in the analyzed papers supra are that owners use human interest topics and illustrations to make the paper appealing to the readers, (Sanes, 1997) The Independent only needs to transform the language in order to become a tabloid pape r. Conboy would probably disagree because the language shows a distant style to tabloids. Bromley believes that owners bring in tabloid values to the quality to attract more readers (Bromley, 1998). I would disagree as there are still people who carry more interest to broadsheets than tabloids. However, since the transformation of many broadsheet newspapers occurred, it gave the readers the choice which content they desired to read. (Sanes, 1997) It is presumably hoped that many readers will find the smaller formats of a tabloid, more convenient, in fact it stiff to be seen how this shake-up will affect the usage of the term broadsheet (Sanes, 1997).Newspapers, however, have always used free subscription trials and other promotions, with advertising platforms such as new or expanded feature sections, and with better home and newsstand diffusion in order to sell a successful paper. However, struggling publishers often seek the quickest method to cut costs and increase circulation w ithout harming ad revenues (McLahlan and Golding, 2000) Many in Britain see their salvation in changing formats they believe that switching to a more compact one, such as the tabloid format, may lift circulation by attracting disaffected newspaper readers. Several important broadsheets across Britain have recently converted themselves into tabloids (du Pont, 1998) and the format have be popular in the year following the transformation.Advertisements are necessary in the production of newspapers. The popular press, it is conventionally reckoned that only 20 percent of revenues come from advertisingthe quality press, on the other hand, receives 60 percent of its revenues from advertising. (Sparks, 2001)Advertising agencies give broadsheets their money as they believe the popular press target the functional class, (Sparks, 2001). This is the only strategy they could possibly use with tabloids as it enables them to advertise in certain papers to target their specific customers. On the other hand, the quality papers aim at the middle and upper class. As a result, their pages include highly paid advertising products. In other words, if selling luxury goods, admans will pay much more to get to people who can afford high profile adverts. Alternatively, if selling ringtones, advertisers will not pay as much as they aim at vast readership.Notably, they follow this process as the middle/upper class people are able to afford those high-priced advertising products. Conversely, Spark argues that poorer readers are excluded from having niche newspapers aimed at them, unlike richer people. He follows to explain that democratic inconsistency based on income (Sparks, 2001) is the reason for the major barrier between the quality papers as the tabloids do not carry the power of press freedom.It can be said that corporate ownership have vie a role in the process of tabloidization and thus involved bifurcation in newspapers. When it comes down to it, the underlying goal of an y corporation is to make profits. That is the nature of the business world. Marketing has become a large part of the news. as well as what underlies this argument was the deregulation of television in the 1980s. Robin Anderson (1995) states Before deregulation, corporate speculators did not purchase post solely for the purpose of commodity trading. aft(prenominal) deregulation, however, speculators who had no interest or experience in the media bought and sold stations simply to make a profit. Corporate investors would often cut corners to make a profit by cutting news departments, and giving into advertiser demands (Anderson, 1995). Deregulation here is what allowed the corporations to purchase the T.V. networks. This makes it a major contributor to tabloidization, even if it was an indirect one. In fact, not just in T.V networks does this happen but newspaper proprietors were also accused of treating their titles as business properties with a social purpose. (Greenslade cited i n Bromley).Bromley believes the problem with broadloid is from magazines. Magazines began to pursue an editorial mix of sex, celebrity and sleaze in a far more aggressive way.(Bromley, 1998) Market competition, advertisements and ownership are affecting the state of the media. There is a clear sign that broadloid is taking place. The format may be reducing to one of a tabloid but the contents majority contains hard news. However, it is seen that money is making owners revalue the public interest.In conclusion to my analysis above, it can be notified that broadsheets have not seen to dramatically change as Franklin argues, conversely, it merely depends on the readers to the type of news they choose to read. Arguably, there is, yet a sectionalization between the tabloid and broadsheet newspapers, but this division lies under the use of language and format the papers chose to present. Whether tabloidization started all the above arguments, or vice versa, it is a question that we may n ever know the firmness of purpose to. Perhaps, finding the answer to it may be the key to finding the true answer to what caused tabloidization. Whether we know where it came from or not, the fact that tabloidization is here still remains and it appears to compete and challenge the success on British newspapers.